Civilizo: Malsamoj inter versioj
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Linio 31:
Jam en la 18a jarcento, civilizo ne estis ĉiam vidata kiel plibonigo. Historie grava distingo inter kulturo kaj civilizo venas el la verkoj de [[Rousseau]], partikulare el lia verko pri edukado, ''[[Emile, aŭ Pri la Eduko|Emile]]''. Tie, civilizo, estante pli [[racio|racia]] kaj socia, ne estas tute kongrua kun la [[homa naturo]], kaj la "homa tuteco estas atingebla nur pre de la rekupero de aŭ alproksimiĝo al origina antaŭdiskursa aŭ antaŭracia natura unueco" (vidu la koncepton de la [[nobla sovaĝulo]]). El tio, oni disvolvigis novan alproksimiĝon, ĉefe en Germanio, unue fare de [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], kaj poste de filozofoj kiaj [[Kierkegaard]] kaj [[Nietzsche]]. Tiu rigardas kulturojn kiel naturaj [[organismo]]j, ne difinitaj de "konsciaj, raciaj, intencaj agadoj" sed kiel speco de antaŭ-racia "popola spirito." Civilizo, kontraste, kvankam pli racia kaj pli sukcesa en materia progreso, estas nenatura kaj kondukas al "malvirtoj de socia vivo" kiaj ruzeco, hipokriteco, envio, kaj avaremo.<ref name=velkley>{{Citation|title=Being after Rousseau: Philosophy and Culture in Question| last=Velkley|first=Richard|year=2002|chapter=The Tension in the Beautiful: On Culture and Civilization in Rousseau and German Philosophy|pages=11–30|publisher=The University of Chicago Press}}</ref> En la [[Dua Mondmilito]], [[Leo Strauss]], estinta elirinta el Germanio, asertis en Novjorko ke tiu opinio pri civilizo estis malantaŭ [[Naziismo]] kaj la germana [[militismo]] kaj [[neniismo]].<ref>"[https://archive.org/details/LeoStraussOnGermanNihilism1941 On German Nihilism]" (1999, origine prelego de 1941), ''Interpretation'' 26, no. 3 eldonita de David Janssens kaj Daniel Tanguay.</ref>
==Karakteroj==▼
[[Dosiero:Calif al Mustansir Misr 1055.jpg|dekstra|eta|Ora monero de [[Fatimida]] Kalifo al-Mustansir, [[Misr]], 1055: montro de [[Islama Orepoko]].]]▼
Ĉiu civilizo havas propran subkontinentan bazon, [[skribsistemo]]n, [[religio]]jn, antikvan [[lingvo]]n, klasikajn librojn, [[imperio]]jn kaj [[historio]]n. Kvankam ĉiu civilizo enhavas multajn gentojn kaj landojn, tiuj partoprenas en komuna, ĝenerala [[kulturo]]. Iuj landoj estas produkto de du civilizoj: [[Turkio]], [[Japanio]], [[Pakistano]], [[Indonezio]], ktp.▼
Civilizoj disvastiĝas per [[milito]], [[imperio]], [[religio]] kaj [[komerco]] kaj daŭras tra la epokoj. [[Religio]] ofte difinas civilizon -- ekzemple [[hinduismo]] kaj [[hinda civilizo]] aŭ [[islamo]] kaj [[islama civilizo]]. Sed iafoje civilizo konvertiĝas al nova religio: ekzemple, la eŭropa al [[kristanismo]] kaj la ĉina al [[budhismo]].▼
[[File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|right|upright|"Neniu en la historio de civilizo formis onian komprenon pri scienco kaj natura filozofio pli ol la granda [[Antikva Grekio|greka]] filozofo kaj sciencisto [[Aristotelo]] (384–322 a.K.), kiu projekciis profundan kaj persvadan influon dum pli ol dumil jaroj" — Gary B. Ferngren<ref>Gary B. Ferngren (2002). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=weOOCfiDhDcC&pg=PA33&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Science and religion: a historical introduction]''". JHU Press. p.33. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0</ref>]]
Sociaj sciencistoj kiaj [[V. Gordon Childe]] nombris multajn trajtojn kiuj distingas civilizon el laij tipoj de socio.<ref>Gordon Childe, V., ''What Happened in History'' (Penguin, 1942) kaj ''Man Makes Himself'' (Harmondsworth, 1951)</ref> Civilizoj estis distingitaj pere de ties rimedoj por vivteni sin, tipoj de vivostiloj, modeloj de [[Setlejo|setlado]], formoj de [[registaro|regado]], [[socia klaso| socia tavoligo]], ekonomiaj sistemoj, [[legoscio]], kaj aliaj kulturaj trajtoj. [[Andrew Nikiforuk]] asertas ke "civilizoj estis ligitaj al sklava homa forto. Estis la energio de sklavoj kio plantis la kultivaĵojn, vestis la imperiestrojn, kaj konstruis urbojn" kaj konsideras sklavecon kiel komuna trajto de antaŭ-modernaj civilizoj.<ref>Nikiforuk, Andrew (2012), "The Energy of Slaves: Oil and the new servitude" (Greystone Books)</ref>
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All civilizations have depended on [[agriculture]] for subsistence. Grain farms can result in accumulated storage and a surplus of food, particularly when people use intensive agricultural techniques such as artificial [[fertilisation]], [[irrigation]] and [[crop rotation]]. It is possible but more difficult to accumulate horticultural production, and so civilisations based on horticultural gardening have been very rare.<ref>Hadjikoumis; Angelos, Robinson; and Sarah Viner-Daniels (Eds) (2011), "Dynamics of Neolithisation in Europe: Studies in honour of Andrew Sherratt" (Oxbow Books)</ref> [[Grain]] surpluses have been especially important because they can be [[food storage|stored]] for a long time. A surplus of food permits some people to do things besides produce food for a living: early civilizations included [[soldiers]], [[artisan]]s, [[priest]]s and priestesses, and other people with specialized careers. A surplus of food results in a division of labor and a more diverse range of human activity, a defining trait of civilizations. However, in some places hunter-gatherers have had access to food surpluses, such as among some of the indigenous peoples of the [[Pacific Northwest]] and perhaps during the [[Mesolithic]] [[Natufian culture]]. It is possible that food surpluses and relatively large scale social organization and division of labor predates plant and animal domestication.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/06/gobekli-tepe/mann-text/1 |title= Göbekli Tepe |publisher= [[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]] |accessdate=13 November 2014}}</ref>
Civilizations have distinctly different settlement patterns from other societies. The word ''civilization'' is sometimes simply defined as "'living in cities'".<ref>[[Tom Standage]] (2005), ''A History of the World in 6 Glasses'', Walker & Company, 25.</ref> Non-farmers tend to gather in cities to work and to trade.
Compared with other societies, civilizations have a more complex political structure, namely the [[State (polity)|state]].<ref>Grinin, Leonid E (Ed) et al. (2004), "The Early State and its Alternatives and Analogues" (Ichitel)</ref> State societies are more stratified<ref>Bondarenko, Dmitri et al. (2004), "Alternatives to Social Evolution" in Grinin op cit.</ref> than other societies; there is a greater difference among the social classes. The [[ruling class]], normally concentrated in the cities, has control over much of the surplus and exercises its will through the actions of a [[government]] or [[bureaucracy]]. [[Morton Fried]], a [[conflict theory|conflict theorist]], and [[Elman Service]], an integration theorist, have classified human cultures based on political systems and [[social inequality]]. This system of classification contains four categories<ref>Bogucki, Peter (1999), "The Origins of Human Society" (Wiley Blackwell)</ref>
* ''[[Hunter-gatherer]] bands'', which are generally [[egalitarianism|egalitarian]].<ref>DeVore, Irven, and Lee, Richard (1999) "Man the Hunter" (Aldine)</ref>
* ''[[horticulture|Horticultural]]/[[Pastoralism|pastoral]] societies'' in which there are generally two inherited social classes; chief and commoner.
* ''Highly stratified structures'', or [[chiefdom]]s, with several inherited social classes: king, noble, freemen, serf and slave.
* ''Civilizations,'' with complex [[social hierarchy|social hierarchies]] and organized, institutional [[government]]s.<ref>{{cite book | last = Beck | first = Roger B. |author2=Linda Black |author3=Larry S. Krieger |author4=Phillip C. Naylor |author5=Dahia Ibo Shabaka | title = World History: Patterns of Interaction | publisher = McDougal Littell | year = 1999 | location = Evanston, IL | isbn = 0-395-87274-X }}</ref>
Economically, civilizations display more complex patterns of ownership and exchange than less organized societies. Living in one place allows people to accumulate more [[Ownership|personal possessions]] than nomadic people. Some people also acquire [[landed property]], or private ownership of the land. Because a percentage of people in civilizations do not grow their own food, they must [[trade]] their goods and services for food in a [[Market (economics)|market]] system, or receive food through the levy of [[tribute]], redistributive [[taxation]], [[tariffs]] or [[tithe]]s from the food producing segment of the population. Early human cultures functioned through a [[gift economy]] supplemented by limited [[barter]] systems. By the early [[Iron Age]] contemporary civilizations developed [[money]] as a medium of exchange for increasingly complex transactions. To oversimplify, in a village the potter makes a pot for the brewer and the brewer compensates the potter by giving him a certain amount of beer. In a city, the potter may need a new roof, the roofer may need new shoes, the cobbler may need new horseshoes, the blacksmith may need a new coat, and the tanner may need a new pot. These people may not be personally acquainted with one another and their needs may not occur all at the same time. A monetary system is a way of organizing these obligations to ensure that they are fulfilled. From the days of the earliest monetarised civilisations, monopolistic controls of monetary systems have benefited the social and political elites.
[[Writing]], developed first by people in [[Sumer]], is considered a hallmark of civilization and "appears to accompany the rise of complex administrative bureaucracies or the conquest state."<ref>[[Timothy Pauketat|Pauketat, Timothy R.]] 169.</ref> Traders and bureaucrats relied on writing to keep accurate records. Like money, writing was necessitated by the size of the population of a city and the complexity of its commerce among people who are not all personally acquainted with each other. However, writing is not always necessary for civilization. The [[Inca]] civilization of the Andes did not use writing at all but it uses a complex recording system consisting of cords and nodes instead: the "Quipus", and it still functioned as a civilised society.
Aided by their division of labor and central government planning, civilizations have developed many other diverse cultural traits. These include organized [[religion]], development in the [[arts]], and countless new advances in [[science]] and [[technology]].
Through history, successful civilizations have spread, taking over more and more territory, and assimilating more and more previously-uncivilized people. Nevertheless, some tribes or people remain uncivilized even to this day. These cultures are called by some "[[primitive culture|primitive]]," a term that is regarded by others as pejorative. "Primitive" implies in some way that a culture is "first" (Latin = primus), that it has not changed since the dawn of humanity, though this has been demonstrated not to be true. Specifically, as all of today's cultures are contemporaries, today's so-called primitive cultures are in no way antecedent to those we consider civilized. Anthropologists today use the term "[[Protohistoric archaeology|non-literate]]" to describe these peoples.
Civilization has been spread by [[colonization]], [[imperialism|invasion]], [[religious conversion]], the extension of [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic control]] and [[trade]], and by introducing agriculture and writing to non-literate peoples. Some non-civilized people may willingly adapt to civilized behaviour. But civilization is also spread by the technical, material and social dominance that civilization engenders.
Assessments of what level of civilization a polity has reached are based on comparisons of the relative importance of agricultural as opposed to trade or manufacturing capacities, the territorial extensions of its power, the complexity of its [[division of labor]], and the carrying capacity of its [[urbanism|urban centres]]. Secondary elements include a developed transportation system, writing, standardized measurement, currency, contractual and [[tort]]-based legal systems, art, architecture, mathematics, scientific understanding, [[metallurgy]], political structures, and organized religion.
Traditionally, polities that managed to achieve notable military, ideological and economic power defined themselves as "civilized" as opposed to other societies or human grouping which lay outside their sphere of influence, calling the latter [[barbarians]], [[wikt:savages|savages]], and [[primitive culture|primitives]], while in a modern-day context, "civilized people" have been contrasted with [[indigenous people]] or [[tribal societies]].
==Civilizoj==
Linio 50 ⟶ 83:
* [[mezamerika civilizo]]
* [[inkaa civilizo]]
▲==Karakteroj==
▲[[Dosiero:Calif al Mustansir Misr 1055.jpg|dekstra|eta|Ora monero de [[Fatimida]] Kalifo al-Mustansir, [[Misr]], 1055: montro de [[Islama Orepoko]].]]
▲Ĉiu civilizo havas propran subkontinentan bazon, [[skribsistemo]]n, [[religio]]jn, antikvan [[lingvo]]n, klasikajn librojn, [[imperio]]jn kaj [[historio]]n. Kvankam ĉiu civilizo enhavas multajn gentojn kaj landojn, tiuj partoprenas en komuna, ĝenerala [[kulturo]]. Iuj landoj estas produkto de du civilizoj: [[Turkio]], [[Japanio]], [[Pakistano]], [[Indonezio]], ktp.
▲Civilizoj disvastiĝas per [[milito]], [[imperio]], [[religio]] kaj [[komerco]] kaj daŭras tra la epokoj. [[Religio]] ofte difinas civilizon -- ekzemple [[hinduismo]] kaj [[hinda civilizo]] aŭ [[islamo]] kaj [[islama civilizo]]. Sed iafoje civilizo konvertiĝas al nova religio: ekzemple, la eŭropa al [[kristanismo]] kaj la ĉina al [[budhismo]].
==Kultura identeco==
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