Historio de judoj en Nederlando: Malsamoj inter versioj
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Linio 29:
Dum la regado de Vilhelmo la 5-a la lando suferis internajn malkonsentojn; la judoj, tamen, restis fidedaj al li. Kiam li enposteniĝis la tagon de sia majoritato, nome la 8an de Marto 1766, ĉie en la sinagogoj oni celebris dankemajn servojn. Vilhelmo la 5-a ne forgesis siajn judajn rilatojn. La 3a de Junio 1768, li vizitis kaj la Germanan kaj la Portugalan sinagogojn; li ankaŭ ĉeestis la nuptojn de kelkaj elstaraj judaj familioj.
===Holokaŭsto===
{{Ĉefartikolo|Holokaŭsto}}
[[File:Westerbork-monument1.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Monumento ĉe [[Westerbork]]: ĉiu ŝtono reprezentas unu personon kiu estis ĉe Westerbork kaj mortiĝis en Nazia [[koncentrejo]].]]
En 1939, estis ĉirkaŭ 140,000 nederlandaj judoj loĝantaj en Nederlando, inter kiuj ĉirkaŭ 25,000 Germanaj judaj rifuĝintoj kiuj abandonis Germanion en la 1930-aj jaroj (aliaj fontoj postulas ke ĉirkaŭ 34,000 judaj rifuĝintoj eniris en Nederlando inter 1933 kaj 1940, ĉefe el Germanio kaj Aŭstrio).<ref>[http://www.jhm.nl/jhm/documenten/InleidingEvV%20cd.eng.pdf Askhenazi Jews in Amsterdam]. Edward van Voolen. Alirita la 21an de Julio 2007.</ref> La Nazia okupforto metis la nombron de (rase) nederlandaj judoj en 1941 en ĉirkaŭ 154,000. En la Nazia censo, ĉirkaŭ 121,000 personoj deklaris ke ili estas membroj de (Aŝkenaza) nederland-israela komunumo; 4,300 personoj deklaris ke ili estas membroj de ([[Sefardoj|Sefarda]]) portugal-israela komunumo. Ĉirkaŭ 19,000 personoj informis ke ili havas du judajn geavojn (kvankam ĝenerale oni supozas ke proporcio de tiu nombro havas fakte tri judajn geavojn, sed malakceptis aserti tiun nombron pro timo ke ili estus viditaj kiel judoj anstataŭ kiel [[Judodevena miksrasulo (nazia Germanujo)|duonjudoj]] fare de la Naziaj aŭtoritatoj). Ĉirkaŭ 6,000 personoj informis havi unu judan avon. Ĉirkaŭ 2,500 personoj kiuj estis kalkulitaj en la censo kiel judoj estis fakte membroj de kristana eklezio, ĉefe [[Dutch Reformed]], [[Reformed Churches in the Netherlands|Calvinist Reformed]] or Roman Catholic.
{{redaktata}}
In 1941, most Dutch Jews were living in Amsterdam. The census in 1941 gives an indication of the geographical spread of Dutch Jews at the beginning of World War II (province; number of Jews – this number is not based on the [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|racial standards of the Nazis]], but by what the persons declared themselves to be in the population census):
*[[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] – 4,682
*[[Friesland]] – 851
*[[Drenthe]] – 2,498
*[[Overijssel]] – 4,345
*[[Gelderland]] – 6,663
*[[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]] – 4,147
*[[North Holland]] – 87,026 (including 79,410 in [[Amsterdam]])
*[[South Holland]] – 25,617
*[[Zeeland]] – 174
*[[North Brabant]] – 2,320
*[[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]] – 1,394
*Total – 139,717
In 1945, only about 35,000 of them were still alive. The exact number of "full Jews" who survived the Holocaust is estimated to be 34,379 (of whom 8,500 were part of a [[Anti-miscegenation laws#Nazi Germany|mixed marriage]] and thus spared deportation and possible death in the [[Nazi concentration camps]]); the number of "half Jews" who were present in the Netherlands at the end of the Second World War in 1945 is estimated to be 14,545, the number of "quarter Jews" 5,990.<ref name="DEMOS March 2001"/> Some 75% of the Dutch-Jewish population perished, an unusually high percentage compared with other occupied countries in western Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |author=JCH Blom |title=The Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands: A Comparative Western European Perspective |doi=10.1177/026569148901900302 |journal=[[European History Quarterly]] |date=July 1989 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=333–351}}. For more recent publications, see: Pim Griffioen and Ron Zeller, "Comparison of the Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands, France and Belgium, 1940-1945: Similarities, Differences, Causes", in: Peter Romijn et al., ''The Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands, 1940–1945. New Perspectives''. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press/Vossius Pers/NIOD, 2012, 55–91. Pim Griffioen and Ron Zeller, "Anti-Jewish Policy and Organization of the Deportations in France and the Netherlands, 1940–1944: A Comparative Study", ''Holocaust and Genocide Studies'' 20 (3), Winter 2006, 437–473.</ref>
Factors that influenced the great number of people who perished were the fact that the Netherlands was not under a military regime, because the queen and the government had fled to England, leaving the whole governmental apparatus intact. An important factor is also that the Netherlands at that time was already the most densely inhabited country of Western Europe, making it difficult for the relatively large number of Jews to go into hiding. Most Jews in Amsterdam were poor, which limited their options for flight or hiding. Another factor is that the country did not have much open space or woods to flee to. Also, the civil administration was advanced and offered the Nazi-German a full insight in not only the numbers of Jews, but also where they exactly lived. It is important to note that the average citizen of the Netherlands was unaware of the operation of "death camps" such as Mauthausen for the majority of the occupation. As all Dutch citizens where obligated to "register" and undertake work in Germany.<ref>Ettie Huizing, Wie het geweten heeft, het levensverhaal van Siep Adema, SUN 1994, ISBN 90-6168-425-0</ref> In fact once concerns about the treatment of Dutch citizens of Jewish descent were recognised the first act of mass civil disobedience in occupied Europe during WWII took place in order to support those Dutch citizens of Jewish descent known as the Februaristaking “[[February strike]]”.
A theory is that the vast majority of the nation accommodated itself to circumstances: "In their preparations for the extermination of the Jews living in The Netherlands, the Germans could count on the assistance of the greater part of the Dutch administrative infrastructure. The occupiers had to employ only a relatively limited number of their own personnel; Dutch policemen rounded up the families to be sent to their deaths in Eastern Europe. Trains of the Dutch railways staffed by Dutch employees transported the Jews to camps in The Netherlands which were transit points to Auschwitz, Sobibor, and other death camps." With respect to Dutch collaboration, [[Eichmann]] is quoted as saying "The transports run so smoothly that it is a pleasure to see."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp412.htm |title=Wartime and Postwar Dutch Attitudes Toward the Jews: Myth and Truth |author=[[Manfred Gerstenfeld]] |publisher=Jcpa.org |date=1999-08-15 |accessdate=2012-05-01}}</ref>
[[File:Amsterdam Anne Frank.jpg|thumb|left|220px|This [[statue]] in Amsterdam commemorates [[Anne Frank]], the Jewish diarist who went into hiding during the Second World War (and who is presumably represented by a stone at Westerbork)]]
During the first year of the occupation of the Netherlands, Jews, who were already registered on basis of their faith with the authorities (just as Protestants, Catholics and others were), had to get a large "J" stamped in their IDs while the whole population had to declare whether or not they had "Jewish" roots. Jews were banned from certain occupations and further isolated from public life. Starting in January 1942, some Dutch Jews were forced to move to Amsterdam; others were directly deported to [[Westerbork transit camp|Westerbork]], a concentration camp near the small village of [[Hooghalen]]. Westerbork was founded in 1939 by the Dutch government as the Central Refugee Camp to give shelter to Jews fleeing Nazi persecution following ''[[Kristallnacht]]''. After the German occupation of the Netherlands in 1940, it became a transit camp for Jews who were being deported to the [[Nazi concentration camps]] in Middle and Eastern Europe. Nearly all the prisoners who left Westerbork for the east perished before the end of World War II.
All non-Dutch Jews were also sent to Westerbork. In addition, over 15,000 Jews were sent to labour camps. Deportations of Jews from the Netherlands to Poland and Germany began on 15 June 1942 and ended on 13 September 1944. Ultimately some 101,000 Jews were deported in 98 transports from Westerbork to [[Auschwitz]] (57,800; 65 transports), [[Sobibor extermination camp|Sobibor]] (34,313; 19 transports), [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp|Bergen-Belsen]] (3,724; 8 transports) and [[Theresienstadt]] (4,466; 6 transports), where most of them were murdered. Another 6,000 Jews were deported from other locations (like [[Vught]]) in the Netherlands to concentration camps in Germany, Poland and Austria (like [[Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp|Mauthausen]]). Only 5,200 survived. The Dutch underground hid an estimated number of Jews of some 25,000–30,000; eventually, an estimated 16,500 Jews managed to survive the war by hiding. Some 7,000 to 8,000 survived by fleeing to countries like Spain, the United Kingdom, and [[Switzerland]], or by being married to non-Jews (which saved them from deportation and possible death). At the same time, there was substantial collaboration with the Nazis from members of the Dutch population, including the Amsterdam city administration, the Dutch municipal police, and Dutch railway workers, who all helped to round up and deport Jews.
One of the best known Holocaust victims in the Netherlands is [[Anne Frank]]. Along with her sister, [[Margot Frank]], she died from typhus in March 1945 in the [[concentration camp]] of [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp|Bergen-Belsen]], due to unsanitary living conditions and confinement by the Nazis. Anne Frank's mother, [[Edith Frank-Holländer]], was starved to death by the Nazis in [[Auschwitz]]. Anne Frank's father, [[Otto Frank]], survived the war. Dutch victims of the Holocaust include [[Etty Hillesum]],<ref>Frank, Evelyne. ''Avec Etty Hillesum : Dans la quête du bonheur, un chemin inattendu. Une lecture d'une vie bouleversée et des lettres de Westerbork,'' Genève: Labor et Fides, 2002. (ISBN 978-2830910476)</ref> [[Abraham Icek Tuschinski]] and [[Edith Stein]] a.k.a. Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross.
In contrast to many other countries where all aspects of Jewish communities and culture were eradicated during the Shoah, a remarkably large proportion of rabbinic records survived in Amsterdam, making the history of Dutch Jewry unusually well documented.
==Referencoj==
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