Bovo: Malsamoj inter versioj
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Linio 84:
En [[Usono]], la averaĝa pezo de viandobovo konstante pliiĝis, speciale ekde la [[1970-aj jaroj]], kio postulis la konstruadon de novaj buĉejoj kapablaj manipuli pli grandaj kadavraĵoj. Novaj pakofabrikoj en la 1980-aj jaroj stimulis pli grandan grandon en la pezo de bovoj.<ref>Kenneth H. Mathews – 1999 – U.S. Beef Industry: Cattle Cycles, Price Spreads, and Packer concentration. Paĝo 6.</ref> Antaŭ 1790 [[viandobovo]]j averaĝis nur 160 kg; kaj ekde tiam la pezoj plialtiĝis rapide.<ref>American Economic Growth and Standards of Living before the Civil War, Robert E. Gallman, John Joseph Wallis – 2007 p. 248.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://beefmagazine.com/genetics/0201-increased-beef-cows |title=Cattle increasing in size|accessdate=2015-05-05 |website=Beef Magazine|deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503101557/http://beefmagazine.com/genetics/0201-increased-beef-cows |archivedate=3a de Majo 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
==Sciaro==
En laboratoriaj studoj, junaj bovoj estas kapablaj parkeri la lokojn de kelkaj manĝofontoj kaj reteni tiun memoron dum almenaŭ 8 horojn, kvankam tio malpliiĝas post 12 horoj.<ref name="Bailey1989">{{cite journal |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |volume=23 |issue=4 |year=1989 |pages=331–340 |title=Characteristics of spatial memory in cattle |last1=Bailey |first1=D.W. |last2=Rittenhouse |first2=L.R. |last3=Hart |first3=R.H. |last4=Richards |first4=R.W |doi=10.1016/0168-1591(89)90101-9}}</ref> Dekkvin-monataj bovinoj lernas pli rapide ol plenkreskaj bovinoj kiuj estis jam havintaj unu aŭ du bovidojn, sed ties long-daŭra memoro estas malpli stabila.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kovalčik |first1=K. |last2=Kovalčik |first2=M. |year=1986 |title=Learning ability and memory testing in cattle of different ages |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=27–29 |doi=10.1016/0168-1591(86)90019-5}}</ref> Maturaj bovoj bone plenumas en spacaj lernotaskoj kaj havas bonan long-daŭran memoron en tiuj testoj. Bovoj testitaj en radiaj branĉaroj kapablas memori la lokojn de bonkvalita manĝaĵo dum almenaŭ 30 tagoj. Kvankam ili dekomence lernas eviti malbonkvalitan manĝaĵon, tiu memoro malpliiĝas laŭlonge de la samae daŭro.<ref name="Mendl2009first">{{cite book |last1=Mendl |first1=M. |last2=Nicol |first2=C.J. |chapter=Chapter 5: Learning and cognition |pages=61–63 |editor1-last=Jensen |editor1-first=P. |year=2009 |title=The Ethology of Domestic Animals: An Introductory Text |publisher=CABI}}</ref> Sub malpli artefaritaj testokondiĉoj, junaj bovoj montris ke ili kapablas memori la lokon de manĝaĵo dum almenaŭ 48 tagoj.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ksiksi |first1=T. |last2=Laca |first2=E.A. |year=2002 |title=Cattle do remember locations of preferred food over extended periods |journal=Asian Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=900–904 |doi=10.5713/ajas.2002.900}}</ref> Bovoj povas fari asocion inter vida stimulo kaj manĝo post unu tago – memoro de tiu asocio povas esti retenita dum unu jaro, spite malgrandan malpliiĝon.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hirata |first1=M. |last2=Takeno |first2=N. |year=2014 |title=Do cattle (Bos taurus) retain an association of a visual cue with a food reward for a year? |journal=Animal Science Journal |volume=85 |issue=6 |pages=729–734 |doi=10.1111/asj.12210}}</ref>
{{redaktata}}
Calves are capable of discrimination learning<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schaeffer |first1=R.G. |last2=Sikes |first2=J.D. |title=Discrimination learning in dairy calves |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |year=1971 |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=893–896 |doi=10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(71)85937-4}}</ref> and adult cattle compare favourably with small mammals in their learning ability in the [[Closed-field Test]].<ref name="Kilgour1981">{{cite journal |last1=Kilgour |first1=R. |title=Use of the Hebb–Williams closed-field test to study the learning ability of Jersey cows |journal=Animal Behaviour |year=1981 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=850–860 |doi=10.1016/s0003-3472(81)80020-6}}</ref>
They are also able to discriminate between familiar individuals, and among humans. Cattle can tell the difference between familiar and unfamiliar animals of the same species (conspecifics). Studies show they behave less aggressively toward familiar individuals when they are forming a new group.<ref name="Coulon2011" /> Calves can also discriminate between humans based on previous experience, as shown by approaching those who handled them positively and avoiding those who handled them aversively.<ref name="Passille1996">{{cite journal |last1=de Passille |first1=A.M. |last2=Rushen |first2=J. |last3=Ladewig |first3=J. |last4=Petherick |first4=C. |title=Dairy calves' discrimination of people based on previous handling |year=1996 |volume=74 |pages=969–974 |journal=Journal of Animal Science}}</ref> Although cattle can discriminate between humans by their faces alone, they also use other cues such as the color of clothes when these are available.<ref name="Mendl2009second">{{cite book |last1=Mendl |first1=M. |last2=Nicol |first2=C.J. |chapter=Chapter 5: Learning and cognition |pages=144 |editor1-last=Jensen |editor1-first=P. |year=2009 |title=The Ethology of Domestic Animals: An Introductory Text |publisher=CABI}}</ref>
In audio play-back studies, calves prefer their own mother's vocalizations compared to the vocalizations of an unfamiliar mother.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barfield |first1=C.H. |last2=Tang‐Martinez |first2=Z. |last3=Trainer |first3=J.M. |year=1994 |title=Domestic calves (Bos taurus) recognize their own mothers by auditory cues |journal=Ethology |volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=257–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.1994.tb01045.x}}</ref>
In laboratory studies using images, cattle can discriminate between images of the heads of cattle and other animal species.<ref name="Coulon2007">{{cite book |last1=Coulon |first1=M. |last2=Deputte |first2=B.L. |last3=Heyman |first3=Y. |last4=Delatouche |first4=L. |last5=Richard |first5=C. |last6=Baudoin |first6=C. |year=2007 |work=Social cognition and welfare in cattle: capacities of visual species discrimination |title=14 èmes Recontres autour des recherches sur les ruminants, Paris, les 5 et 6 Décembre 2007 |pages=297–300 |publisher=Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA) |language=fr}}</ref> They are also able to distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics. Furthermore, they are able to [[Categorization|categorize]] images as familiar and unfamiliar individuals.<ref name="Coulon2011">{{cite journal |last1=Coulon |first1=M. |last2=Baudoin |first2=C. |last3=Heyman |first3=Y. |last4=Deputte |first4=B.L. |year=2011 |title=Cattle discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics by using only head visual cues |journal=Animal Cognition |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=279–290 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-010-0361-6#page-1 |doi=10.1007/s10071-010-0361-6}}</ref>
When mixed with other individuals, [[Cloning|cloned]] calves from the same donor form subgroups, indicating that kin discrimination occurs and may be a basis of grouping behaviour. It has also been shown using images of cattle that both artificially inseminated and cloned calves have similar cognitive capacities of kin and non-kin discrimination.<ref name="Coulon2010x">{{cite journal |last1=Coulon |first1=M. |last2=Baudoin |first2=C. |last3=Abdi |first3=H. |last4=Heyman |first4=Y. |last5=Deputte |first5=B.L. |year=2010 |title=Social behavior and kin discrimination in a mixed group of cloned and non cloned heifers (Bos taurus) |journal=Theriogenology |volume=74 |issue=9 |pages=1596–1603 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0093691X10003493 |doi=10.1016/j.theriogenology.2010.06.031}}</ref>
Cattle can recognize familiar individuals. Visual individual recognition is a more complex mental process than visual discrimination. It requires the recollection of the learned idiosyncratic identity of an individual that has been previously encountered and the formation of a mental representation.<ref name="Hagen2003">{{cite journal |author1=Hagen, K. |author2=Broom, D.M. |year=2003 |title=Cattle discriminate between individual familiar herd members in a learning experiment. |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=13–28 |doi=10.1016/s0168-1591(03)00053-4}}</ref> By using 2-dimensional images of the heads of one cow (face, profiles, ¾ views), all the tested heifers showed individual recognition of familiar and unfamiliar individuals from their own breed. Furthermore, almost all the heifers recognized unknown individuals from different breeds, although this was achieved with greater difficulty. Individual recognition was most difficult when the visual features of the breed being tested were quite different from the breed in the image, for example, the breed being tested had no spots whereas the image was of a spotted breed.<ref name="Coulon2009">{{cite journal |last1=Coulon |first1=M. |last2=Deputte |first2=B.L. |last3=Heyman |first3=Y. |last4=Baudoin |first4=C. |year=2009 |title=Individual recognition in domestic cattle (Bos taurus): evidence from 2D-images of heads from different breeds |journal=PLOS One |volume=4 |issue= 2|pages=4441 |url=http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0004441 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0004441 |pmid=19212439 |pmc=2636880 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530163636/http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0004441 |archivedate=30 May 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
Cattle use [[Lateralization of brain function|visual/brain lateralisation]] in their visual scanning of novel and familiar stimuli.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Phillips |first1=C.J.C. |last2=Oevermans |first2=H. |last3=Syrett |first3=K.L. |last4=Jespersen |first4=A.Y. |last5=Pearce |first5=G.P. |year=2015 |title=Lateralization of behavior in dairy cows in response to conspecifics and novel persons |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=2389–2400 |doi=10.3168/jds.2014-8648}}</ref> Domestic cattle prefer to view novel stimuli with the left eye, i.e. using the right brain hemisphere (similar to horses, Australian magpies, chicks, toads and fish) but use the right eye, i.e. using the left hemisphere, for viewing familiar stimuli.<ref name="Robins">{{cite journal |last1=Robins |first1=A. |last2=Phillips |first2=C. |year=2010 |title=Lateralised visual processing in domestic cattle herds responding to novel and familiar stimuli |journal=Laterality |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=514–534 |doi=10.1080/13576500903049324}}</ref>
== Historio kaj disvastigo ==
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