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James Clerk Maxwell: Malsamoj inter versioj

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===Universitato de Kembriĝo, 1850–1856===
[[File:YoungJamesClerkMaxwell.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A youngJuna Maxwell aten la [[Trinity College, Cambridge(Kembriĝo)|Trinity College]]. HeLi istenas holdingunu oneel ofsiaj his [[colour wheel]]skolorcikloj.]]
En oktobro 1850, jam agnoskita matematikisto, Maxwell lasis Skotlandon por la [[Universitato de Kembriĝo]]. Li dekomence estis en la lernejo Peterhouse, tamen antaŭ la fino de la unua lernotempo translokiĝis al ''[[Trinity College (Kembriĝo)|Trinity]]'', kie li opiniiis, ke estos pli facila la atingo de membreco.<ref>{{harvnb|Glazebrook|1896|p=28}}</ref> En ''Trinity'' li estis elektita por la elita sekreta societo konata kiel Kembriĝaj Apostoloj.<ref>{{harvnb|Glazebrook|1896|p=30}}</ref> La intelektula kompreno de Maxwell pri sis kristana kredo kaj pri scienco kreskiĝis rapide dum la jaroj de Kembriĝo. Li aliĝis al la "Apostoloj", nome altnivela debatsocieto de la intelektula [[elito]], kie pere de siaj eseoj li klopodis esprimi sian komprenon.
 
La etendo laŭ kiu Maxwell "plugis" la grundon de siaj kristanaj kredoj kaj metis ilin sub intelekta testo, povas esti juĝita nur nekomplete el liaj verkoj. Sed estas multa pruvaro, speciale el liaj subgradigaj tagoj, ke li profunde ekzamenis sian kredaron. Certe, lia kono de la [[Biblio]] estis rimarkinda, kaj tiel lia fido en la Skribaĵoj ne estis bazita sur nescio.
In October 1850, already an accomplished mathematician, Maxwell left Scotland for the [[University of Cambridge]]. He initially attended [[Peterhouse College, Cambridge|Peterhouse]], however before the end of his first term transferred to [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity]], where he believed it would be easier to obtain a [[fellow]]ship.<ref>{{harvnb|Glazebrook|1896|p=28}}</ref> At Trinity he was elected to the elite secret society known as the [[Cambridge Apostles]].<ref>{{harvnb|Glazebrook|1896|p=30}}</ref> Maxwell's intellectual understanding of his Christian faith and of science grew rapidly during his Cambridge years. He joined the "Apostles", an exclusive debating society of the intellectual elite, where through his essays he sought to work out this understanding.
 
InEn thela summersomero ofde hissia thirdtria yearjaro, Maxwell spentpasigis someiom timeda attempo theen la [[Otley, Suffolk|SuffolkSufolka]] homehejmo ofde thela pastro [[Charles Benjamin Tayler|Rev C.B. Tayler]], thenome uncleonklo ofde asia classmatesamklasano, nome G.W.H. Tayler. TheLa loveamo ofal GodDio shownmontrita byde thela familyfamilio impressedimpresis Maxwell, particularlypartikulare afterpost heli wasestis nursedzorgita backdenove fromel illmalsano healthfare byde thela ministerpastoro andkaj hislia wifeedzino.<ref>{{harvnb|Campbell|1882|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8_iS-4ec9wwC&pg=PA170 169–170]}}</ref>▼
The extent to which Maxwell "ploughed up" his Christian beliefs and put them to the intellectual test, can be judged only incompletely from his writings. But there is plenty of evidence, especially from his undergraduate days, that he did deeply examine his faith. Certainly, his knowledge of the Bible was remarkable, so his confidence in the Scriptures was not based on ignorance.
 
InEn Novembernovembro 1851, Maxwell studiedstudis underkun [[William Hopkins]], whosekies successsukceso inzorgante nurturingpri mathematicalmatematikaj geniusgenioj hadhavigis earnedal himli thela nickname ofkromnomon "[[Seniorfaranto Wranglerde (University of Cambridge)|"senior wrangler]]"-makeroj".<ref>{{harvnb|Warwick|2003|pp=84–85}}</ref>▼
▲In the summer of his third year, Maxwell spent some time at the [[Otley, Suffolk|Suffolk]] home of the [[Charles Benjamin Tayler|Rev C.B. Tayler]], the uncle of a classmate, G.W.H. Tayler. The love of God shown by the family impressed Maxwell, particularly after he was nursed back from ill health by the minister and his wife.<ref>{{harvnb|Campbell|1882|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8_iS-4ec9wwC&pg=PA170 169–170]}}</ref>
 
En 1854, Maxwell gradiĝis el ''Trinity'' per gradigo en matematiko. Li rangiĝis la dua plej altpoenta en la finaj ekzamenoj, malantaŭ nur [[Edward Routh]] kio havigis al li mem la titolon de "Dua Wrangler". Li estis poste deklarita egala kun Routh en la pli preciza ordigo por la postulema ekzameno por la Premio Smith.<ref name="Tolstoy_p 62">{{harvnb|Tolstoy|1982|p=62}}</ref> Tuj post la akiro de sia gradigo, Maxwell legis sian artikolon "On the Transformation of Surfaces by Bending" al la Kembriĝa Filozofia Societo.<ref>{{harvnb|Harman|1998|p=3}}</ref> Tiu estas unu el la malmultaj pure matematikaj artikoloj kiujn li verkis, demonstrante lian kreskantan staturon kiel matematikisto.<ref>{{harvnb|Tolstoy|1982|p=61}}</ref> Maxwell decidis resti en ''Trinity'' post gradigo kaj kandidatiĝis por membreco, kiu estis procezo kiun li supozis por paro da jaroj.<ref name="Mahon_p 47-48">{{harvnb|Mahon|2003|pp=47–48}}</ref> Markita per sia sukceso kiel esplorema studento, li estus libera, krom kelkaj tutoraj kaj ekzamenaj taskoj, por sekvi sciencajn interesojn propraplezure.<ref name="Mahon_p 47-48"/>
On his return to Cambridge, Maxwell writes to his recent host a chatty and affectionate letter including the following testimony,<ref name="MIT IAP Seminar"/>
 
TheLa naturenaturo andkaj perceptionpercepto ofde colour[[koloro]] wasestis oneunu suchtiaj interestinteresoj whichkiujn heli hadstartis begunen atla theUniversitato Universityde ofEdinburgo Edinburghdum whileli heestis wasstudento a student ofde Forbes.<ref name="Mahon_p 51">{{harvnb|Mahon|2003|p=51}}</ref> WithPer thela colouredtutkoloraj [[topTurbo|spinning topsspinturboj]] inventedinventitaj byde Forbes, Maxwell wasestis ablekapabla todemonstri, demonstrateke thatla whiteblanka lightlumo wouldrezultas resultel frommikso ade mixture of redruĝa, green,verda andkaj blueblua lightlumoj.<ref name="Mahon_p 51"/> HisLia paperartikolo "Experiments on Colour" laid(Eksperimentoj outpri thekoloro) principlesmetis ofla colourprincipojn combinationde andkolorkombinado waskaj presentedestis toprezentita theal Royalla SocietyReĝa ofSocieto de EdinburghEdinburgo inen Marchmarto 1855.<ref name="Tolstoy_p 64-65">{{harvnb|Tolstoy|1982|pp=64–65. The full title of Maxwell's paper was "Experiments on colour, as perceived by the eye, with remarks on colour-blindness".}}</ref> Maxwell wasestis en tiu momento jam thisrajtigita timeliveri ableĝin toper deliversi itmem himselfpersone.<ref name="Tolstoy_p 64-65"/>▼
{{quote|... I have the capacity of being more wicked than any example that man could set me, and ... if I escape, it is only by God's grace helping me to get rid of myself, partially in science, more completely in society, —but not perfectly except by committing myself to God ...}}
 
Maxwell wasiĝis mademembro a fellow ofde ''Trinity'' onla 1010an Octoberde oktobro 1855, soonerpli thanfrue wasol theestis normla normalo,<ref name="Tolstoy_p 64-65"/> and waskaj askedricevis totaskon prepareprepari lecturesprelegojn onpri [[hydrostaticshidrostatiko]] andkaj [[opticsoptiko]] andkaj tola set examination papersekzamenilojn.<ref name="Glazebrook_p 43-46">{{harvnb|Glazebrook|1896|pp=43–46}}</ref> TheLa followingvenontan Februaryfebruaron heli wasestis urgedinstigita byde Forbes topor applykandidatiĝi foral thela newlyĵus vacantdisponebla [[chair (academic)Profesoro|ChairKatedro]] ofde NaturalNatura PhilosophyFilozofio aten [[la "Marischal College]]", [[Aberdeen]].<ref>{{cite web |title=James Clerk Maxwell |url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/People/James%20Clerk%20Maxwell%20183179.aspx |accessdate=22 April 2013 |publisher=The Science Museum, London |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531131420/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/People/James%20Clerk%20Maxwell%20183179.aspx |archivedate=3131a Mayde majo 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="Campbell p 126">{{harvnb|Campbell|1882|p=126}}</ref> HisLia fatherpatro assistedhelpis himlin inen thela tasktasko ofprepari preparingla thenecesajn necessary referencesreferencojn, butsed diedmortis onla 22an Aprilde aprilo aten Glenlair beforeeĉ eitherantaŭ knewkoni thela resultrezulton ofde Maxwell'sla candidacykandidatiĝo de Maxwell.<ref name="Campbell p 126"/> HeLi acceptedakceptis thela professorshipprofesorecon aten Aberdeen, leavingkaj lasis CambridgeKembriĝon inen Novembernovembro 1856.<ref name="Glazebrook_p 43-46"/>▼
▲In November 1851, Maxwell studied under [[William Hopkins]], whose success in nurturing mathematical genius had earned him the nickname of "[[Senior Wrangler (University of Cambridge)|senior wrangler]]-maker".<ref>{{harvnb|Warwick|2003|pp=84–85}}</ref>
 
===Marischal College, Aberdeen, 1856–1860===
In 1854, Maxwell graduated from Trinity with a degree in mathematics. He scored second highest in the final examination, coming behind [[Edward Routh]] and earning himself the title of Second Wrangler. He was later declared equal with Routh in the more exacting ordeal of the [[Smith's Prize]] examination.<ref name="Tolstoy_p 62">{{harvnb|Tolstoy|1982|p=62}}</ref> Immediately after earning his degree, Maxwell read his paper "On the Transformation of Surfaces by Bending" to the [[Cambridge Philosophical Society]].<ref>{{harvnb|Harman|1998|p=3}}</ref> This is one of the few purely mathematical papers he had written, demonstrating his growing stature as a mathematician.<ref>{{harvnb|Tolstoy|1982|p=61}}</ref> Maxwell decided to remain at Trinity after graduating and applied for a fellowship, which was a process that he could expect to take a couple of years.<ref name="Mahon_p 47-48">{{harvnb|Mahon|2003|pp=47–48}}</ref> Buoyed by his success as a research student, he would be free, apart from some tutoring and examining duties, to pursue scientific interests at his own leisure.<ref name="Mahon_p 47-48"/>
[[File:Saturn HST 2004-03-22.jpg|thumb|left|Maxwell pruvis, ke la [[Ringoj de Saturno]] estas faritaj el multnombraj malgrandaj partikloj.]]
The 25-year-old Maxwell was a good 15 years younger than any other professor at Marischal. He engaged himself with his new responsibilities as head of a department, devising the syllabus and preparing lectures.<ref name="Mahon_p 69-71">{{harvnb|Mahon|2003|pp=69–71}}</ref> He committed himself to lecturing 15 hours a week, including a weekly ''[[pro bono]]'' lecture to the local working men's college.<ref name="Mahon_p 69-71"/> He lived in Aberdeen with his cousin [[William Dyce Cay]], a Scottish civil engineer, during the six months of the academic year and spent the summers at Glenlair, which he had inherited from his father.<ref name="preface"/>
 
[[File:JamesClerkMaxwell-KatherineMaxwell-1869.jpg|thumb|upright|James kaj Katherine Maxwell, 1869.]]
▲The nature and perception of colour was one such interest which he had begun at the University of Edinburgh while he was a student of Forbes.<ref name="Mahon_p 51">{{harvnb|Mahon|2003|p=51}}</ref> With the coloured [[top|spinning tops]] invented by Forbes, Maxwell was able to demonstrate that white light would result from a mixture of red, green, and blue light.<ref name="Mahon_p 51"/> His paper "Experiments on Colour" laid out the principles of colour combination and was presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in March 1855.<ref name="Tolstoy_p 64-65">{{harvnb|Tolstoy|1982|pp=64–65. The full title of Maxwell's paper was "Experiments on colour, as perceived by the eye, with remarks on colour-blindness".}}</ref> Maxwell was this time able to deliver it himself.<ref name="Tolstoy_p 64-65"/>
He focused his attention on a problem that had eluded scientists for 200 years: the nature of [[Rings of Saturn|Saturn's rings]]. It was unknown how they could remain stable without breaking up, drifting away or crashing into Saturn.<ref>{{harvnb|Harman|1998|pp=48–53}}</ref> The problem took on a particular resonance at that time because [[St John's College, Cambridge]] had chosen it as the topic for the 1857 [[Adams Prize]].<ref name="oxford_508">{{harvnb|Harman|2004|p=508}}</ref> Maxwell devoted two years to studying the problem, proving that a regular solid ring could not be stable, while a fluid ring would be forced by wave action to break up into blobs. Since neither was observed, he concluded that the rings must be composed of numerous small particles he called "brick-bats", each independently orbiting Saturn.<ref name="oxford_508"/> Maxwell was awarded the £130 Adams Prize in 1859 for his essay "On the stability of the motion of Saturn's rings";<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/onstabilityofmot00maxw |title=On the stability of the motion of Saturn's rings |accessdate=24 March 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150616221114/https://archive.org/details/onstabilityofmot00maxw |archivedate=16 June 2015 }}</ref> he was the only entrant to have made enough headway to submit an entry.<ref>{{harvnb|Mahon|2003|p=75}}</ref> His work was so detailed and convincing that when [[George Biddell Airy]] read it he commented "It is one of the most remarkable applications of mathematics to physics that I have ever seen."<ref name=mactutor/> It was considered the final word on the issue until direct observations by the ''[[Voyager program|Voyager]]'' flybys of the 1980s confirmed Maxwell's prediction that the rings were composed of particles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://digital.nls.uk/scientists/biographies/james-clerk-maxwell/index.html |title=James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) |publisher=National Library of Scotland |accessdate=27 August 2013 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006063943/http://digital.nls.uk/scientists/biographies/james-clerk-maxwell/index.html |archivedate=6 October 2013 }}</ref> It is now understood, however, that the rings' particles are not stable at all, being pulled by gravity onto Saturn. The rings are expected to vanish entirely over the next 300 million years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://earthsky.org/space/saturns-rings-disappearing-ring-rain-video |title=Goodbye to Saturn's Rings |publisher=EarthSky |accessdate=20 February 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
In 1857 Maxwell befriended the Reverend Daniel Dewar, who was then the Principal of Marischal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/auden/cgi-bin/auden/individual.php?pid=I20494&ged=auden-bicknell.ged |title=Very Rev. Daniel Dewar DD (I20494) |publisher=Stanford University |accessdate=27 August 2013}}</ref> Through him Maxwell met Dewar's daughter, [[Katherine Clerk Maxwell|Katherine Mary Dewar]]. They were engaged in February 1858 and married in Aberdeen on 2 June 1858. On the marriage record, Maxwell is listed as Professor of Natural Philosophy in Marischal College, Aberdeen.<ref>James Clerk Maxwell and Katherine Mary Dewar marriage certificate, Family History Library film #280176, district 168/2 (Old Machar, Aberdeen), page 83, certificate No. 65.</ref> Seven years Maxwell's senior, comparatively little is known of Katherine, although it is known that she helped in his lab and worked on experiments in [[viscosity]].<ref>{{harvnb|Maxwell|2001|p=351}}</ref> Maxwell's biographer and friend, Lewis Campbell, adopted an uncharacteristic reticence on the subject of Katherine, though describing their married life as "one of unexampled devotion".<ref>{{harvnb|Tolstoy|1982|pp=88–91}}</ref>
▲Maxwell was made a fellow of Trinity on 10 October 1855, sooner than was the norm,<ref name="Tolstoy_p 64-65"/> and was asked to prepare lectures on [[hydrostatics]] and [[optics]] and to set examination papers.<ref name="Glazebrook_p 43-46">{{harvnb|Glazebrook|1896|pp=43–46}}</ref> The following February he was urged by Forbes to apply for the newly vacant [[chair (academic)|Chair]] of Natural Philosophy at [[Marischal College]], [[Aberdeen]].<ref>{{cite web |title=James Clerk Maxwell |url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/People/James%20Clerk%20Maxwell%20183179.aspx |accessdate=22 April 2013 |publisher=The Science Museum, London |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531131420/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/People/James%20Clerk%20Maxwell%20183179.aspx |archivedate=31 May 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="Campbell p 126">{{harvnb|Campbell|1882|p=126}}</ref> His father assisted him in the task of preparing the necessary references, but died on 2 April at Glenlair before either knew the result of Maxwell's candidacy.<ref name="Campbell p 126"/> He accepted the professorship at Aberdeen, leaving Cambridge in November 1856.<ref name="Glazebrook_p 43-46"/>
 
In 1860 Marischal College merged with the neighbouring [[King's College, Aberdeen|King's College]] to form the [[University of Aberdeen]]. There was no room for two professors of Natural Philosophy, so Maxwell, despite his scientific reputation, found himself laid off. He was unsuccessful in applying for Forbes's recently vacated chair at Edinburgh, the post instead going to [[Peter Tait (physicist)|Tait]]. Maxwell was granted the Chair of Natural Philosophy at [[King's College, London]], instead.<ref name="Glazebrook_p 54">{{harvnb|Glazebrook|1896|p=54}}</ref> After recovering from a near-fatal bout of [[smallpox]] in 1860, he moved to London with his wife.<ref>{{harvnb|Tolstoy|1982|p=98}}</ref>
 
== Anekdoto ==
Elŝutita el "https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell"