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Linio 135:
Kiel ĉe aliaj insektoj, forkikoj havas [[ekzoskeleto]]n, nome ekstera kovrilo kiu havigas protekton ĉirkaŭ la korpo kaj ligejon por muskoloj, kontraste al la internaj skeletoj de homoj kaj de aliaj [[vertebruloj]]. Insektoj ne havas [[pulmo]]jn; [[oksigeno]] kaj aliaj gasoj, kiel [[karbona dioksido]], pasas tra ilia ekzoskeleto tra fajnaj valvoj nomitaj spirakloj. Insektoj ankaŭ ne havas fermitajn [[Sanga vaskulo|sangovaskulojn]]; anstataŭe, ili havas longan, fajnan, truitan tubon laŭlonge de la korposupro (nomita la "dorsa [[aorto]]") kiu funkcias kiel koro, kaj pumpas [[hemolimfo]]n al la kapo, tiel kondukante la cirkuladon de la internaj fluaĵoj. La [[nerva sistemo]] konsistas de ventra nervokordo kiu trairas la longon de la korpo, kun kelkaj [[ganglio]]j kaj branĉoj survoje atingantaj la pintoj de la membroj.<ref name="insectmorph">Borror, Triplehorn & Delong (1989), pp. 24–71</ref>
==Vivociklo==
[[Image:Meat eater ant nest swarming02.jpg|thumb|Nesto de purpurformiko ''Iridomyrmex purpureus'' dum svarmado.]]
La vivo de formiko ekas el [[ovo (biologio)|ovo]]. Se la ovo estas fekundita, la ido estos ina [[diploido]]; if not, it will be male [[haploido]]. Ants develop by [[complete metamorphosis]] with the [[larvo]] stages passing through a [[pupa]]l stage before emerging as an adult. The larva is largely immobile and is fed and cared for by workers. Food is given to the larvae by [[trophallaxis]], a process in which an ant [[Regurgitation (digestion)|regurgitates]] liquid food held in its [[Crop (anatomy)|crop]]. This is also how adults share food, stored in the "social stomach". Larvae, especially in the later stages, may also be provided solid food, such as [[trophic egg]]s, pieces of prey, and seeds brought by workers.
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The larvae grow through a series of four or five [[moult]]s and enter the pupal stage. The pupa has the appendages free and not fused to the body as in a [[Chrysalis|butterfly pupa]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Gillott, Cedric |year=1995|title=Entomology|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-306-44967-3|page=325}}</ref> The differentiation into queens and workers (which are both female), and different [[caste (biology)|castes]] of workers, is influenced in some species by the nutrition the larvae obtain. Genetic influences and the [[polyphenism|control of gene expression]] by the developmental environment are complex and the determination of caste continues to be a subject of research.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The causes and consequences of genetic caste determination in ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) |first1=Kirk E. |last1=Anderson |first2=Timothy A. |last2=Linksvayer |first3=Chris R. |last3=Smith | name-list-format = vanc |journal=Myrmecol. News |volume=11 |pages=119–132 |year=2008 |url=https://myrmecologicalnews.org/cms/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=250&Itemid=73}}</ref> Winged male ants, called drones, emerge from pupae along with the usually winged breeding females. Some species, such as [[army ant]]s, have wingless queens. Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development, and so often are moved around among the various brood chambers within the colony.<ref>Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 351, 372</ref>
A new ergate spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. She then graduates to digging and other nest work, and later to defending the nest and foraging. These changes are sometimes fairly sudden, and define what are called temporal castes. An explanation for the sequence is suggested by the high casualties involved in foraging, making it an acceptable risk only for ants who are older and are likely to die soon of natural causes.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Annual Review of Entomology|year=1989|volume=34|pages=191–210|title=Foraging strategies of ants|author=Traniello JFA|doi=10.1146/annurev.en.34.010189.001203}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Sorensen A, Busch TM, Vinson SB |title=Behavioral flexibility of temporal sub-castes in the fire ant, ''Solenopsis invicta'', in response to food|journal=Psyche|volume=91|pages=319–332|year=1984|url=http://psyche.entclub.org/91/91-319.html|doi=10.1155/1984/39236|issue=3–4}}</ref>
Ant colonies can be long-lived. The queens can live for up to 30 years, and workers live from 1 to 3 years. Males, however, are more transitory, being quite short-lived and surviving for only a few weeks.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Keller L|year=1998 |title=Queen lifespan and colony characteristics in ants and termites |journal=[[Insectes Sociaux]] |volume=45 |pages=235–246 |doi=10.1007/s000400050084 |issue=3}}</ref> Ant queens are estimated to live 100 times as long as solitary insects of a similar size.<ref name=insencyc>{{cite book|editor-link1=Nigel R. Franks|veditors=Franks NR, Resh VH, Cardé RT|year=2003|title=Encyclopedia of Insects|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofin00bada/page/29 29–32]|isbn=978-0-12-586990-4|publisher=Academic Press|location=San Diego|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofin00bada/page/29}}</ref>
Ants are active all year long in the tropics, but, in cooler regions, they survive the winter in a state of dormancy known as [[hibernation]]. The forms of inactivity are varied and some temperate species have larvae going into the inactive state ([[diapause]]), while in others, the adults alone pass the winter in a state of reduced activity.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kipyatkov VE|year=2001|title=Seasonal life cycles and the forms of dormancy in ants (Hymenoptera, Formicoidea)|journal=Acta Societatis Zoologicae Bohemicae|volume=65|issue=2|pages=198–217}}</ref>
[[File:Prenolepis imparis, male.jpg|thumb|Alate male ant, ''[[Prenolepis imparis]]'']]
===Reproduction===
[[Image:FlyingAnts.jpg|thumb|Ants mating]]
A wide range of reproductive strategies have been noted in ant species. Females of many species are known to be capable of reproducing asexually through [[thelytoky|thelytokous parthenogenesis]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Heinze|first=Jurgen |last2=Tsuji|first2=Kazuki| name-list-format = vanc |year=1995|title=Ant reproductive strategies|journal=Res. Popul. Ecol.|volume=37|issue=2|pages=135–149 |url= http://meme.biology.tohoku.ac.jp/POPECOL/RP%20PDF/37(2)/pp.135.pdf |doi=10.1007/BF02515814 }}</ref> Secretions from the male accessory glands in some species can plug the female genital opening and prevent females from re-mating.<ref name="Mikheyev, a. S. 2003. pp.401">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/s00040-003-0697-x | title = Evidence for mating plugs in the fire ant ''Solenopsis invicta'' | journal = Insectes Sociaux | volume = 50 | issue = 4 | pages = 401–402 | year = 2003 | vauthors = Mikheyev AS }}</ref> Most ant species have a system in which only the queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens, while others may exist without queens. Workers with the ability to reproduce are called "[[gamergate]]s" and colonies that lack queens are then called gamergate colonies; colonies with queens are said to be queen-right.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Peeters C, Hölldobler B | title = Reproductive cooperation between queens and their mated workers: the complex life history of an ant with a valuable nest | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 92 | issue = 24 | pages = 10977–9 | date = November 1995 | pmid = 11607589 | pmc = 40553 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.92.24.10977 | bibcode = 1995PNAS...9210977P }}</ref>
Drones can also mate with existing queens by entering a foreign colony. When the drone is initially attacked by the workers, it releases a mating [[pheromone]]. If recognized as a mate, it will be carried to the queen to mate.<ref name="Franks N. 2008">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Franks NR, Hölldobler B | doi = 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1987.tb00298.x | title = Sexual competition during colony reproduction in army ants | journal = Biological Journal of the Linnean Society | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 229–243 | year = 1987 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref> Males may also patrol the nest and fight others by grabbing them with their mandibles, piercing their [[exoskeleton]] and then marking them with a pheromone. The marked male is interpreted as an invader by worker ants and is killed.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF01175395 | title = Pheromonal manipulation of workers by a fighting male to kill his rival males in the ant ''Cardiocondyla wroughtonii'' | journal = Naturwissenschaften | volume = 79 | issue = 6 | pages = 274–276 | year = 1992 | vauthors = Yamauchi K, Kawase N | bibcode = 1992NW.....79..274Y }}</ref>
[[Image:Meat eater ant qeen excavating hole.jpg|thumb|left|Fertilised meat-eater ant queen beginning to dig a new colony]]
Most ants are [[univoltine]], producing a new generation each year.<ref name=bloodywasp>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Richard W. | name-list-format = vanc |year=2007 |chapter=Bloody funny wasps! Speculations on the evolution of eusociality in ants|pages=580–609|veditors=Snelling RR, Fisher BL, Ward PS|title=Advances in ant systematics (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): homage to E. O. Wilson – 50 years of contributions. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute, 80|publisher=American Entomological Institute | chapter-url = http://antbase.org/ants/publications/21292/21292.pdf |access-date=2015-12-13}}</ref> During the species-specific breeding period, winged females and winged males, known to [[entomologists]] as [[alate]]s, leave the colony in what is called a [[nuptial flight]]. The nuptial flight usually takes place in the late spring or early summer when the weather is hot and humid. Heat makes flying easier and freshly fallen rain makes the ground softer for mated queens to dig nests.<ref name="nuptial flight 2">{{cite journal| vauthors = Wilson EO |year=1957|title=The organization of a nuptial flight of the ant ''Pheidole sitarches'' Wheeler | journal = Psyche | url = http://www.antwiki.org/wiki/images/7/7f/Wilson_1958d.pdf |volume=64|issue= 2|pages=46–50|doi=10.1155/1957/68319}}</ref> Males typically take flight before the females. Males then use visual cues to find a common mating ground, for example, a landmark such as a [[pine tree]] to which other males in the area converge. Males secrete a mating pheromone that females follow. Males will mount females in the air, but the actual mating process usually takes place on the ground. Females of some species mate with just one male but in others they may mate with as many as ten or more different males, storing the [[Spermatozoon|sperm]] in their [[spermatheca]]e.<ref name="HolldoblerWilsonAnts2">Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 143–179</ref>
Mated females then seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their wings and begin to lay and care for eggs. The females can selectively fertilise future eggs with the sperm stored to produce diploid workers or lay unfertilized haploid eggs to produce drones. The first workers to hatch are known as nanitics,<ref name="SuddFranks2013">{{cite book | vauthors = Sudd JH, Franks NR |title=The Behavioural Ecology of Ants|date=9 March 2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9789400931237|page=41}}</ref> and are weaker and smaller than later workers, but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food, and care for the other eggs. Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site,<ref name="HolldoblerWilsonAnts2"/> a process akin to [[Swarming (honey bee)|swarming]] in [[honeybee]]s.
== Formikoj kaj homoj ==
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